Web Master's Note:  One of the primary purposes of our web site is to introduce the student to the Manhattan Project.  This historical event culminated in the development of nuclear weapons which arguably brought about a swift end to World War II.  Whether one agrees or disagrees with the use of the atomic bombs, there can be no question that the Manhattan Project represents the single most complex technical achievement the world has ever seen.  

     Since a majority of high school and some college-level history textbooks contain minimal information about the Project, and the information they choose to include is often seriously distorted, we decided to construct this web site.  Below are some suggested topics which can be used for a variety of research projects.  If you have any questions, please contact us via "feedback" above.  We answer all e-mails.

Unsure of where to start!  Check out our new GLOSSARY for ideas...

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Einstein/Sachs Document Collection - 20 Documents that Initiated America's Pursuit of an Atomic Bomb - 1939

1. Many think that Hitler sowed the seeds of Germany's defeat when he introduced the laws barring Jewish individuals from university teaching posts:  Check out sections 2b - Shame at Gottingen and 2c - Scientific Exodus.

2. Long before the Manhattan Project was ever envisioned, European scientists labored over the possibilities of a nuclear chain reaction.  Check out sections 2a - Early Enlightenment, 2d - Uranium Confusion and 2e - Fission.  

3. Once the possibilities of a nuclear chain reaction were verified, America took steps, albeit small, to gain as much knowledge about fission and its potential as a weapon of war.  This was accomplished on a very low-key basis and was prior to America's entry into World War II.  Check out sections 3 - The Einstein Letter, 2f - "Pa! This Requires Action!", 4a - The Uranium Committee, 4c - The National Defense Research Committee, and 4d - Office of Scientific Research and Development.

4. Once the power that was hidden in uranium became evident, the emphasis shifted to methods to separate the much more potent uranium 235 from its abundant sister, uranium 238.  This question consumed thousands of hours and millions of dollars.  It was basic to the development of a weapon and took center stage in late 1939 and early 1940.  It would continue to plague researchers well into 1944.  Check out sections 4b - Isotope Separation Methods, 4b1 - Electromagnetic Separation, 4b2 - Gaseous Diffusion, 4b3 - Centrifuge, 4b4 - Liquid Thermal Diffusion, 4h - Isotope Separation - Continuing Progress, 5a - Isotope Separation.

5. Uranium isotope separation moved from the laboratory to the field with the construction of the giant Clinton Engineer Works (Oak Ridge).  One of the largest construction projects in the world, even by today's standards, Oak Ridge eventually employed more than 45,000 workers and consumed fully 1/7 of the total electrical output of the United States.  Check out sections 6b1 - Oak Ridge Site Selection, 6b2 - Y12 Plant, 6b3 - K25 Plant, 6b4 - X10 Graphite Reactor, and 6b5 - S50 Plant.

6. The Metallurgical Laboratory (Met Lab) at the University of Chicago conducted most of the early research on pile (reactor) design and contributed greatly to the science of isotope separation.  Fermi achieved the first sustained chain reaction here and Glenn Seaborg perfected the chemistry of plutonium.  Check out sections 5f - Chicago Met Lab, 6b4 - X10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, and 5c - DuPont.   Laura Fermi, wife of Enrico Fermi, once said that the only secret that she was ever able to pry out of her husband was that "there were no metallurgists at the Metallurgical Laboratory".

7. The British were instrumental in "kick-starting" America's bomb effort.  Check out sections 4e - The MAUD Report, 4f - Britain's Early Input, and 6a4 - The British Mission to Los Alamos.

8. Prior to the United States Government becoming involved, early research on nuclear fission was conducted by various university laboratories as well as several well-known companies.  DuPont, Kodak (Tennessee Eastman), General Electric, Westinghouse, Allis Chalmers, ALCOA, Union Carbide, Stone & Webster, and many others were directly involved in the construction and operation of many of the Manhattan Project's facilities.  Check out sections 6b1 - Oak Ridge Site Selection, 6b2 - Y12 Plant, 6b3 - K25 Plant, 6b4 - X10 Graphite Reactor, 6b5 - S50 Plant, 5c - DuPont, and 5f - Chicago Met Lab.

9. One of the greatest controversies to come out of World War II was whether the atomic bomb was necessary to bring about its end.  Revisionist historians will say no!  I say absolutely!  Who is right?  You make the determination for yourself.  We have provided loads of information for your use:  Check out "Why We Did It!" by Evan Thomas of Newsweek or "Who's Sorry Now" by Bill Powell of Newsweek - or go to our Lingering Controversy Main Page to look at other alternatives.

10. Most everyone realizes that the Manhattan Project was dealing with many unknowns, and...most of them were dangerous.  None was more dangerous than "Tickling the Dragon's Tail", the criticality experiments that were conducted at Omega Site at Los Alamos.  In fact two young scientists, in separate incidents, lost their life when the experiment they were working on went awry...and the Dragon Bit.  Check out the complete story of these two scientists:  Harry K. Daghlian Jr. and Louis P. Slotin,

11. One of the most extraordinary stories of the Manhattan Project occurred on Sept. 2, 1944 at the Naval Research Laboratory at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.  While working to unclog a tube carrying uranium hexafluoride, it exploded, bursting nearby steam pipes and bathing two chemical engineers with a scalding mixture of radioactive hydrofluoric acid.  Both engineers died.  What makes this story unique is the fact that, due to the extreme secrecy surrounding the thermal diffusion project, no one was made aware that a large amount of radioactive materials had been released.  Check out the Philadelphia Incident for the full details.

12. In late March of 1945, the USS Indianapolis (Heavy Cruiser) was damaged by a Kamikaze plane during the battle for Iwo Jima.  In late July 1945, following repairs in California, she made a high-speed trip to Tinian Island to deliver atomic bomb components for "Little Boy", the first bomb dropped on Hiroshima.  Thus completing that mission, she sailed for the Philippines.  Shortly after midnight on July 30, 1945 she was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine and sank quickly.  Nearly 800 of her 1,200 crew members lost their lives. One of the most enduring stories of World War II.

13. As one might expect, the fear of espionage (spying) by enemy governments was of supreme importance to those involved with the Manhattan Project.  Though it is commonly thought that Nazi Germany might have been heavily involved, it was actually our ally, Russia, that caused such havoc amongst the security personnel.  It was not until the war was over that the clandestine activities of Klaus Fuchs, Julius & Ethel Rosenberg, David Greenglass, Harry Gold and others became known.  By that time the United States was firmly in the grip of such radical demagogues as J. Edgar Hoover and Joseph McCarthy.  This chapter in Manhattan Project history is filled with the drama that you would expect. 

14. Perhaps one of the most intriguing stories of the Manhattan Project era involves the conversation that took place between Werner Heisenberg, the leading nuclear authority of Nazi Germany, and the eminent Niels Bohr, in Copenhagen, Denmark in October of 1941.  The controversy surrounding this conversation centers about Heisenbergs' motives.  Further complications come from the possible role that German physicists played in "stone-walling" Nazi Germany's efforts to develop the bomb.  It was soon after this meeting between Bohr and Heisenberg that Bohr and his wife made their escape to America.  Heisenberg and other top German physicists were later captured by the Allies and detained at a country estate (Farm Hall) in England where their every word was secretly recorded.  Read the entire story HERE!

15. A little known operation of the Manhattan Engineer District took place behind enemy lines in occupied Europe.  Code-named the Alsos Missions, these intelligence gathering operations moved with the advancing allies to learn first-hand how far along Germany had moved toward developing an atomic weapon.  These operations succeeded in capturing most of the key German scientists, capturing stores of uranium ore and other nuclear raw materials, and confiscating thousands of research records.  Fully under the command of General Leslie Groves, these operations are full of intrigue and are an excellent subject for the student researcher.  "Click" HERE!

16. Oak Ridge was referred to as the "City Behind the Fence".  The greatest construction project ever undertaken.  This makes an excellent topic for a paper.  We have loads of information and photos and if you are interested in a very concise history of Oak Ridge, we recommend the Atomic Energy Commission Handbook,

17. During World War II, uranium became very important as the primary element that could produce a nuclear weapon.  One company, Mallinckrodt Chemical of St. Louis, stepped up to the plate and was able to purify the strange material to a level never before achieved.  The 'Uranium Story' makes an excellent choice for a paper.

18. In 1943 it became evident that something drastic would have to be attempted to secure enough technically-trained men to produce an atomic bomb in time to end the war.  As a result the Special Engineer Detachment was established.  A little known but very important part of the Manhattan Project.

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